What is Pre-Mongolian History?
Mongolia, a modern nation located between Siberia and China, is primarily wide-open steppes - an area in which livestock management, hunting, and a nomadic lifestyle have been optimal for thousands of years. As a result of dynamic competition for pasture and conquests by different groups, Central Asia was ruled by numerous powerful steppe empires: Xiongnu (3rd century BCE - 1st century CE), Turkish (552 - 745 CE), Uighur (744 - 840 CE), Liao (9th Empire (12th - 11th - 14th centuries CE) and Mongol centuries) succeeded one another. Those Uighur groups that gained power in the Mongolian steppes had similar languages and cultures to the ancient Turks who came before them. As a result, there are many archaeological sites in Mongolia associated with the Uighur people. Still, very few excavations have been done during this period (Waugh 2010).
Origin of Mongolian people in Mongolian History
Mongolia has been inhabited by humans since the Paleolithic period (35,000-12,000 BCE). The iconic weapon of Mongolia, the bow and arrow, was first manufactured during the Mesolithic period (12,000–8000 BCE). Mongolia was home to settlements of varying sizes during the Neolithic period (8000-4000 BCE). Their remains provide essential information about Mongolia's conditions during these times. Khovd Aimag's Khoit Tsenkher Cave delivers some of the most impressive examples. Mongolia's wildlife has undergone considerable changes, as evidenced by monochrome paintings. The drawings show not only what appears to be Ovis ammon, or the Argali bighorn sheep, which is still found in Mongolia, and early camels, but also ostriches and elephants, suggesting that Mongolia was once much warmer.
Mongolia History: the Xiongnu Confederation
Mongolia's early history is characterized by nomadic pastoral confederations. A confederation's dominant tribe was usually known as its name. During the ancient period, the Xiongnu, known more commonly as the Huns in the west, were the most important. Between approximately the third century BCE and 155 CE, the Xiongnu inhabited China. China's Qin (221-207 BCE) and Han (207 BCE-220 CE) were their perennial enemies during this time. Ancient defensive walls, the early predecessors of the Great Wall, were built to keep nomads out and reclaim territory abandoned by the nomads. These walls, however, were not particularly effective. Instead, marriage alliances and economic policies proved to be more effective deterrents against Xiongnu attacks. Gold, silver, silks, and other luxury goods, which the nomads could not produce, were gifts from the Han. Also, the Han emperor occasionally sent a princess as a wife to Xiongnu leaders to sweeten the deal.
Despite this, the Xiongnu continued to raid China. The ability to provide goods to his subordinates was part of a leader's standing in a steppe confederation. While tribute helped, the leader, known as the Xianyu, also had to prove his martial valour, so raiding became necessary. The nomadic warriors were kept occupied by raiding China and were less likely to engage in tribal warfare. Several punitive invasions were launched by the Han, but few succeeded as the nomads drifted more profound into the steppe, waiting for the Chinese to exhaust their supplies. At that point, they attacked and usually destroyed the Chinese armies. As a consequence, the Chinese embarked on a tribal war strategy.
Ultimately, their strategies worked. The Xiongnu were plagued by internal feuds, and their northern and southern confederations split in 54 BCE and 91 CE. Eventually, many of the Xiongnu left Mongolia entirely and migrated west of the country. It is thought that their descendants were the Huns who attacked the Roman Empire.
Huns moved to west - Mongolian History
Attila (born about 395, died in 453) was the leader of the Hun Empire in the west and their most significant expansion in Western Europe. He ruled from 434 to 453. During this time, the empire reached Pannonia in the west. The Greeks and Latins indicate that Attila was of the royal lineage that ruled Huns for generations (Priscus Panites, 1851). Great statesmen such as Attila were extraordinary deeds, wise rulers, skilled diplomats, and fair judges. There is good reason to consider him one of the most prominent figures of the first millennium (Tursynovich and Sadykova 2013).
Figure 3. Migration maps of Turks from east to west throughout history. (1) The Turks' main homeland was Central Asia with the Khingan Mountains in the east, the Caspian Sea in the west, Siberia in the north, and the Himalayas in the south. (2) Turks are nomads and have immigrated to a wide range of places around the world for thousands of years. In particular, the migrations of Hun and Oghuz Turks have been accomplished by covering long distances. (4) People in a nation tend not to leave the nation they have lived in for a long time without much difficulty. However, they migrated to warmer climates due to economic, political, and environmental factors (China and Mongolia). Moreover, Anatolia (now Turkey) was one of their places of settlement (Ali Batu and Heysem S. Batu, p. 78).
The Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region of China emerged from southern Mongolia, now known as a new confederation. China encouraged the Xianbei to bring the Xiongnu to heel in 155 CE. Following Chinese raids by the Xianbei, Chinese enthusiasm quickly waned. There were still Xiongnu, but their power was greatly diminished. There were some Xiongnu clans that were allied with the Xianbei, and others allied with China. The Xiongnu vanished from history in 349 CE.
Transition from Xianbei Dominance in Mongolian History
Eventually, Xianbei's dominance also declined. Many of the elites acclimated to China as a result of increased contact. In fact, the Toba clan established the Northern Wei dynasty (386-528), it encouraged complete contact with China. The Jujuan, a Mongolian people, based in the Orkhon river valley, appeared to have attacked them and weakened their control over Mongolia. From Chinese history, Jujuan history is mainly known for raids across the Gobi Desert into China. Khan was first used by rulers of the Jujuan, which became a standard title for steppe rulers (May 2009).
Rise of the Toba Clan and the Jujuan in Mongolian history
The true significance of the Jujuan in history does not lie in their own history, but rather in that of one of their subordinate tribes, the Turks, known in Chinese history as the T'u-chueh. In 546, with the help of Toba, the Turks rebelled against the Jujuans and defeated them. Undoubtedly, some remained in Mongolia, but the majority fled west. In the west steppes, they were known as Avars, and were a dominant force in eastern Europe from 790 to 800, when they were defeated by Charlemagne and finally defeated by Bulgaria.
The Turks' Rebellion and the Emergence of the Avars
Mongolia was ruled by Turkic tribes from the middle of the sixth century until around 840. While these remained pastoral and nomadic to a large degree, they also successfully created powerful states that extended beyond Mongolia. Indeed, the Kok Turks (552–744) ruled a large empire that extended to the Caspian Sea, whereas the Uighurs (744–840) dominated central Asia and intervened, on occasion, in the affairs of the Tang dynasty of China. Moreover, both states built imperial cities, albeit on a smaller scale than their Chinese neighbours. In spite of this, the period of Turkic dominance of Mongolia was marked by an ever-increasing level of political and economic complexity. The Uighur and the Turks both experimented with religion in addition to imperial designs. Uighurs and Turks both practised Buddhism, but eventually, the Uighur leadership turned to Manicheism.
Turkic Rule in Mongolia History
Though imperial culture and religious influences had a cost, they were ultimately adopted. Nomads from the imperial elite began to separate from each other. As a result of having capital, they spent more time there and became sedentary. Moreover, in order to maintain their imperial appearances, particularly to foreign powers like various Chinese states, the rulers invested heavily in luxury goods, which widened the gap between them and their subjects. The Turkic periods brought many innovations that left them vulnerable to other nomad attacks. Uighurs were eventually driven from their capital, Kara Balasghun, located in the Orkhon river basin, by the Kirghiz, a marginal Turkic group. The Uighurs were expelled from Mongolia after Kara Balasghun was destroyed.
The Liao Dynasty's Influence in Northern China and Mongolia
Mongolia lapsed into a period of disorganization until the late twelfth century as the Kirghiz failed to replicate the imperial pretensions of the Uighurs. Violence was rampant in the region, and no tribe dominated. Many tribes rose to power and fell from power frequently. Until the tenth century, there was no extreme power in northern China until the Liao Dynasty was founded by the Khitans, a proto-Mongolic people. Mongolia remained a part of their domain with a number of small, fortified towns and support facilities such as blacksmiths and others. Khitans may have exerted significant control over their tribes, but this is uncertain (May 2009).
Genghis Khan and the Legacy of the Mongol Empire
Genghis Khan, born as Temüjin in the 12th century, rose from humble beginnings to become one of history's most renowned conquerors. He united the Mongol tribes through a combination of military prowess, strategic brilliance, and diplomatic cunning, establishing the Mongol Empire. Under his leadership, the Mongols rapidly expanded their territory, conquering vast swathes of Asia and Europe. Genghis Khan's innovative military tactics, such as his use of cavalry and disciplined armies, allowed his empire to prevail in battles against more numerous foes. His empire's administrative reforms promoted trade, communication, and cultural exchange across Eurasia, known as the Pax Mongolica, which fostered a period of relative peace and stability. Genghis Khan's legacy extended beyond his lifetime, shaping the course of world history and leaving a lasting impact on the regions he conquered.
Publication bibliography
Ali Batu; Heysem S. Batu: Historical background of Turkish gastronomy from ancient times until today.
May, Timothy Michael (2009): Culture and customs of Mongolia. Westport Conn.: Greenwood Press (Culture and customs of Asia).
Tursynovich, Zhumagulov Kalkaman; Sadykova, Raikhan Onalbayevna (2013): Actual Issues of Research and Teaching of Hun's History. In Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 89 (24), pp. 308–311. DOI: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.08.851.
Waugh, Dan (2010): The silk road.
